上海交通大学学报(医学版), 2024, 44(1): 131-136 doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1674-8115.2024.01.015

综述

代谢性疾病与嗅觉改变及其机制进展

吴倩,1,2, 李华婷,1

1.上海交通大学医学院附属第六人民医院内分泌代谢科,上海市糖尿病研究所,上海市糖尿病重点实验室,上海市糖尿病临床医学中心,上海 200233

2.上海交通大学医学院,上海 200025

Progress of olfactory changes in metabolic diseases and the mechanisms

WU Qian,1,2, LI Huating,1

1.Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Shanghai Sixth People′s Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine; Shanghai Diabetes Institute; Shanghai Key Laboratory of Diabetes Mellitus; Shanghai Clinical Center for Diabetes, Shanghai 200233, China

2.Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China

通讯作者: 李华婷,电子信箱:huarting99@sjtu.edu.cn

编委: 瞿麟平

收稿日期: 2023-05-31   接受日期: 2023-12-05  

基金资助: 国家自然科学基金优秀青年科学基金.  82022012
上海交通大学医学院“双百人”项目.  20191830
上海市高水平地方高校创新团队.  SHSMU-ZDCX20212700
上海市内分泌与代谢疾病研究中心.  2022ZZ01002
2021年度教育信息化教学应用实践共同体项目

Corresponding authors: LI Huating, E-mail:huarting99@sjtu.edu.cn.

Received: 2023-05-31   Accepted: 2023-12-05  

作者简介 About authors

吴 倩(1998—),女,硕士生;电子信箱:wuqian2021@sjtu.edu.cn。 E-mail:wuqian2021@sjtu.edu.cn

摘要

代谢性疾病发病机制复杂,其患病率逐年上升且发病趋向年轻化,已成为全球重要的公共卫生问题。嗅觉是一种重要的感觉功能,在个体的营养和生活质量方面发挥着重要作用。肥胖与嗅觉功能可以相互影响,嗅觉功能受到营养状况的影响,同时在食物摄入、能量消耗和脂质代谢的调节过程中也发挥重要作用,而2型糖尿病、阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停综合征等代谢性疾病患者也存在嗅觉功能障碍。代谢性疾病出现嗅觉改变的机制包括高血糖、胰岛素抵抗等代谢状态的改变,这些改变可引起肽类激素、脂肪细胞因子和神经递质的调节异常,这些中介分子可能在代谢性疾病和嗅觉功能障碍之间发挥作用;代谢性疾病所产生的血管与神经病变也会引起嗅觉神经的直接损伤或神经传导异常;代谢性疾病导致的肠道菌群紊乱也是引起嗅觉功能障碍的潜在机制。同时,认知功能障碍是代谢性疾病的重要并发症,嗅觉功能障碍是代谢性疾病出现认知障碍的前驱临床表现,有助于疾病的早期识别和评估。该文对代谢性疾病与嗅觉变化之间的关系及其潜在机制的研究现状作一综述。

关键词: 肥胖 ; 糖尿病 ; 嗅觉功能 ; 代谢性疾病 ; 认知障碍

Abstract

Metabolic disorders, characterized by a complex pathogenesis, are experiencing a rising prevalence globally and a trend toward younger populations, making them a significant public health concern. Olfaction, a crucial sensory function, plays a pivotal role in an individual′s nutrition and quality of life. There is a bidirectional relationship between obesity and olfactory function. Olfaction is influenced by nutritional status; simultaneously, it plays a vital role in the regulation of food intake, energy expenditure, and lipid metabolism. Moreover, individuals with metabolic disorders such as type 2 diabetes and obstructive sleep apnea syndrome exhibit olfactory dysfunction. Mechanisms underlying olfactory changes in metabolic disorders involve alterations in metabolic states such as hyperglycemia and insulin resistance. These changes can lead to dysregulation of peptide hormones, adipocyte factors, and neurotransmitters, which may potentially act as mediators between metabolic disorders and olfactory dysfunction. Vascular and neural alterations resulting from metabolic disorders can directly damage olfactory nerves or induce abnormal neural transmission. Furthermore, dysbiosis in the gut microbiota induced by metabolic disorders is a potential mechanism for olfactory dysfunction. Cognitive dysfunction is a significant complication of metabolic disorders. Olfactory dysfunction can serve as an early clinical manifestation of cognitive impairment and contributes to early identification and assessment of diseases. This article reviews recent researches on the relationship between metabolic diseases and olfactory changes and the potential mechanisms.

Keywords: obesity ; diabetes mellitus ; olfactory function ; metabolic diseases ; cognitive impairment

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本文引用格式

吴倩, 李华婷. 代谢性疾病与嗅觉改变及其机制进展. 上海交通大学学报(医学版)[J], 2024, 44(1): 131-136 doi:10.3969/j.issn.1674-8115.2024.01.015

WU Qian, LI Huating. Progress of olfactory changes in metabolic diseases and the mechanisms. Journal of Shanghai Jiao Tong University (Medical Science)[J], 2024, 44(1): 131-136 doi:10.3969/j.issn.1674-8115.2024.01.015

代谢性疾病,如肥胖、2型糖尿病和代谢综合征,是一组由能量代谢异常引起的疾病,通常涉及身体的多个系统,由遗传倾向和环境因素共同驱动。在全球的许多国家,肥胖和糖尿病的患病率逐年上升;根据世界卫生组织的数据,自1975至2021年世界肥胖人数已增长了近2倍;随着经济的快速增长,中国的超重肥胖率及糖尿病的患病率迅速上升1-2

嗅觉系统连接了感觉处理和代谢,除了检测和识别食物气味,还是许多负责调节摄食行为的激素和营养物质的传感器。一些疾病以及正常的衰老都会导致嗅觉的减退或完全丧失3,然而,关于代谢性疾病对嗅脑区域和嗅觉处理影响的研究有限,代谢性疾病所伴随的嗅觉改变的机制尚不明晰。此外,代谢性疾病患者发生认知障碍的风险增高,而嗅觉改变是认知障碍的前驱临床症状4-6。本文归纳了评估代谢性疾病嗅觉变化的相关研究,对代谢性疾病引起嗅觉变化的已知机制进行综述,并就嗅觉障碍对代谢性疾病导致的认知障碍的预警作用进行了概述与展望。

1 肥胖与嗅觉之间的双向关系

1.1 肥胖患者的嗅觉改变

肥胖与嗅觉功能的变化有关,包括对气味剂的敏感性下降和气味感知的改变7。THIEBAUD等8发现,接受了高脂饮食后小鼠的嗅觉感觉神经元及其轴突投射显著减少,伴随着嗅电图振幅的降低,嗅觉神经元和相关神经环路的变化与神经元增殖和正常细胞凋亡有关,并且当肥胖小鼠不再进行高脂饲料喂养并恢复正常的体质量和空腹血糖后,嗅觉功能障碍仍然存在。一些在人群队列中开展的研究通过嗅笔(Sniffin′ Sticks)对嗅觉能力进行了评估,发现与非肥胖者相比,肥胖者的嗅觉功能降低9-10。VELLUZZI等11对70名来自意大利的肥胖患者进行了嗅觉阈值、嗅觉辨别和嗅觉识别测试,发现体质量指数(body mass index,BMI)与肥胖者的嗅觉得分之间存在负相关。

减重手术是治疗严重肥胖和相关并发症的最有效的方法之一。接受减重手术后,患者通常会发生嗅觉能力的变化。袖状胃切除术(sleeve gastrectomy,SG)与胃旁路手术(gastric bypass,GBP)是2种常见的减重手术方式,有研究12-16表明这2种减重手术后患者均有嗅觉的变化。ZERRWECK等16对接受了GBP的肥胖患者进行了嗅觉测试,发现术后6个月时肥胖患者的嗅觉得分有所改善。针对SG的研究12-13表明,减重术后嗅觉功能显著改善。HOLINSKI等12对接受了SG的患者进行了嗅觉评估,发现患者的气味辨别力相较于术前有显著改善,但气味敏感性和识别能力无显著变化。HANCI等13发现接受了SG治疗的患者的气味敏感性、辨别和识别能力均有显著改善。研究17也表明嗅觉改变可作为减重手术成功与否的预测指标。

1.2 嗅觉改变对肥胖的影响

嗅觉与代谢之间存在着相互影响的关系。一方面,嗅觉能力会受到营养状况的影响;另一方面,嗅觉还会参与食物摄入、能量消耗和脂质代谢的调节。在调节能量摄入的因素中,气味是诱导食物摄入的重要外部信号,通常被用来评估食物的适口性和摄食选择。嗅觉障碍会对体质量产生怎样的影响仍是一个悬而未决的问题。动物研究18发现,消融嗅觉感觉神经元(olfactory sensory neuron,OSN)的小鼠相较于正常小鼠,接受了高脂饮食后的肥胖程度降低,并伴有产热增加,机制可能涉及胰岛素样生长因子1(insulin-like growth factor-1,IGF-1),在OSN小鼠中阻断IGF-1信号会导致肥胖和胰岛素抵抗增加。然而,STAFFORD等19发现肥胖者对于高能量食物例如巧克力有关的气味表现出更高的敏感度和偏好。对脂肪的味道、气味和质地的感知会影响对食物的偏好,从而改变饮食摄入量和饮食行为,影响长期健康。KINDLEYSIDES等20发现人们对油酸的味觉敏感度和嗅觉敏感度存在相关性,坚果类食物的饮食摄入量与油酸的嗅觉敏感度呈正相关。POESSEL等21利用功能磁共振探索了正常体质量人群与超重肥胖患者在闻到不同热量的食物气味时的潜在神经机制,发现对食物气味的嗅觉感知与内嗅皮层、梨状皮质、脑岛、海马体和杏仁核的大脑活动有关,同时这些神经反应与肥胖状况、代谢因素无关,表明对食物气味的处理可能取决于体质量状况和代谢相关指标以外的因素。嗅觉功能改变和肥胖之间关系的确切机制尚未完全清楚,然而,嗅觉功能的改变可能会影响食物摄入和偏好,导致饮食行为和体质量的改变。嗅觉减退的人可能会吃更多的食物,以补偿他们感知食物的嗅觉能力。嗅觉变化可能会影响肥胖的发展,这需要进一步研究以充分了解其中的机制。

2 糖尿病患者的嗅觉改变

早在20世纪,已有研究表明糖尿病患者会出现嗅觉功能障碍,然而病因尚不清楚。LE FLOCH等22使用气味识别评分(smell recognition scale,SRS)对糖尿病患者的嗅觉识别能力进行了横断面研究,发现糖尿病患者的嗅觉识别能力受损,这可能与糖尿病微血管并发症(微量白蛋白尿、周围神经病变)的存在有关。同年,WEINSTOCK等23使用气味混淆矩阵(odorant confusion matrix,OCM)对111名患有糖尿病的成年人进行了嗅觉识别测试,同样发现他们识别气味的能力下降。此外,有嗅觉障碍的糖尿病患者的空腹血糖水平更高24。嗅觉功能障碍与糖尿病并发症之间的关联尚不清楚,不同的研究结果之间存在差异。既往有研究25-26发现糖尿病并发症与嗅觉障碍无关。然而,另有研究23发现糖尿病患者的嗅觉识别障碍与血糖控制、糖尿病的类型、病程以及微血管并发症(如神经病变、视网膜病变、肾病)无关,但与大血管病变的存在有关,提示与大血管病变相关的后遗症,例如嗅觉区域的缺血,会对嗅觉能力产生负面影响。也有研究27表明嗅觉功能障碍与糖尿病并发症之间可能存在关系:相较于健康人群和没有糖尿病并发症的患者,患有2型糖尿病并发症患者的嗅觉能力降低。同时,LI等28对美国成年人的调查数据分析发现,嗅觉改变与糖尿病相关并发症之间存在正相关关系,心血管并发症和神经病变在糖尿病前期和糖尿病患者中与嗅觉能力下降相关,提示嗅觉改变可能是糖尿病前期或糖尿病存在和进展的预测因素。然而,尚缺乏大型前瞻性研究探讨糖尿病与嗅觉功能障碍发生和发展之间的因果关系。

3 其他代谢性疾病患者的嗅觉改变

阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停综合征(obstructive sleep apnea syndrome,OSAS)也是一种代谢性疾病,与代谢综合征组分(包括高血压、胰岛素抵抗和2型糖尿病等)紧密相关,50%~60%的代谢综合征患者同时患有OSAS29。OSAS患者存在嗅觉功能障碍,其程度与疾病的严重程度有关30。此外,2型糖尿病、肥胖和胰岛素抵抗也是阿尔茨海默病、帕金森病等神经退行性病变的危险因素31-32。有学者认为阿尔茨海默病是一种选择性累及大脑的糖尿病,其分子和生化特征与1型糖尿病和2型糖尿病相似,又被称为“3型糖尿病”33。嗅觉功能障碍被认为是阿尔茨海默病和帕金森病的早期标志,气味识别已被证明有助于在高危人群中识别临床前阿尔茨海默病患者5。在帕金森病中,嗅觉功能障碍是最早出现的非运动特征之一,常比运动症状早数年出现4;一项在帕金森病患者的无症状亲属中开展的前瞻性研究34表明,特发性嗅觉功能障碍与帕金森病发病风险的增加显著相关。

4 代谢性疾病患者嗅觉功能改变的机制

4.1 能量代谢稳态失衡引起嗅觉功能障碍的机制

代谢性疾病发生嗅觉变化背后的机制尚不完全清楚,但由于能量代谢稳态失衡,例如高血糖、胰岛素抵抗、血管功能障碍、氧化应激及药物影响等,导致肽类激素、脂肪细胞因子和神经递质的改变可能参与了代谢性疾病和嗅觉功能障碍之间关联的机制。外侧下丘脑是葡萄糖感应和调节的关键脑区,外侧下丘脑的食欲素神经元投射到嗅球35-36。动物研究37观察到食欲素神经元对葡萄糖敏感,因此,糖尿病患者的高血糖可能通过作用于外侧下丘脑的食欲素神经元来影响嗅觉功能。胰岛素抵抗是代谢性疾病的标志之一,它与嗅觉敏感性呈负相关38。在饮食和遗传诱导的啮齿类肥胖动物模型的研究中发现,嗅球中也存在胰岛素抵抗。在肥胖Zucker大鼠的嗅球中胰岛素与受体的结合减少,提示人类可能以该方式产生嗅球胰岛素抵抗,而这种抵抗可能会破坏嗅觉功能39;通过鼻腔吸入胰岛素可以跨越血脑屏障直接到达中枢神经系统并增强嗅觉功能,且该作用呈剂量依赖性40。中枢神经系统的胰岛素水平和外周血液胰岛素水平对嗅觉阈值的影响是相反的,这可能是因为鼻腔吸入胰岛素改变了嗅觉上皮和嗅皮层的神经元活动41。此外,糖尿病血管病变22与神经病变42导致的嗅觉神经损伤或神经传导异常也会导致嗅觉功能障碍,存在慢性微血管并发症的糖尿病患者的嗅觉识别能力较无此并发症的糖尿病患者更低43

许多维持能量代谢稳态的分子,例如饥饿素、食欲素、神经肽Y、胰岛素、瘦素和胆囊收缩素等,参与调节食物摄入、能量代谢和嗅觉功能44,这些分子在糖尿病、肥胖和其他代谢紊乱中发生改变。瘦素抵抗常伴随着肥胖发生,这会导致肥胖状态下血液中瘦素水平的升高。研究45发现瘦素水平和嗅觉功能之间存在负相关性;然而也有研究46表明血清瘦素水平与嗅觉评分之间没有相关性。关于饥饿素水平和嗅觉功能之间关系的研究结果同样矛盾不一,其中一项研究46表明饥饿素水平和嗅觉阈值之间存在正相关,而另一项研究47结果则报告了负相关。激素水平与嗅觉功能关系的研究结论不一,嗅觉受损的代谢性疾病患者的血清瘦素与饥饿素水平的高低尚无共识,需要进一步的研究来阐明代谢改变与嗅觉功能及血清饥饿素、瘦素水平之间的关系。嗅觉和代谢功能是相互影响的,嗅觉也可以通过生物分子调节代谢稳态。MUTLU等48利用线虫模型研究发现从嗅觉神经回路释放的神经肽FLP-1(FMRFamide-like peptide-1)通过外周神经肽受体NPR-4(nonexpresser of pathogenesis-related gene 4)、血清和糖皮质激素诱导激酶SGK-1(serine/threonine-protein kinase-1),以及FOXO(forkhead box transcription factors class O)转录因子来调节脂肪储存。

4.2 肠道菌群可能介导了代谢性疾病的嗅觉改变

随着基因组技术的进步,人们对微生物组失衡与代谢性疾病之间因果关系的研究逐渐深入。肠道微生物紊乱会导致各种常见代谢性疾病,包括肥胖、2型糖尿病、非酒精性肝病和代谢性心血管病等49。有证据表明,肠道微生物群可能在调节嗅觉功能方面发挥了作用。在一项黑腹果蝇的研究中发现,肠道微生物群可以改变嗅觉引导的行为偏好和营养偏好50。关于肠道微生物群在嗅觉中的作用,最受关注的观察结果来自无菌小鼠的研究。在无菌小鼠中观察到嗅觉纤毛层变薄以及细胞更新减少,与嗅觉受体转导和外源性代谢相关的基因表达减少,而嗅电图信号幅度整体增加51;另一项研究52发现携带不同肠道微生物群而遗传背景相同的小鼠的嗅觉偏好和嗅觉上皮功能存在差异。肠道微生物群影响嗅觉的机制并不完全清楚,可能是由肠道微生物群的代谢产物所介导的。O′DONNELL等53发现在秀丽隐杆线虫中,共生的肠道细菌普鲁威登菌可以产生一种神经调节因子酪胺,可由宿主的酪胺β-羟化酶转化为章鱼胺,章鱼胺可以靶向感觉神经元上的受体,从而调节宿主的嗅觉反应,抑制神经元驱动的辛醇回避行为,这种抑制辛醇回避的行为将影响宿主的饮食习惯和饮食偏好。动物肠道微生物群可以通过调节化学感觉反应如嗅觉等,在塑造宿主健康相关行为中发挥作用,同时肠道微生物失调与代谢性疾病发生、发展的关系密切54,提示肠道菌群可能介导了代谢性疾病的嗅觉改变。

5 嗅觉改变是代谢性疾病患者出现认知减退的前兆

肥胖与2型糖尿病等代谢性疾病是引起认知功能障碍的危险因素之一55-56,嗅觉功能障碍有助于早期识别和评估认知功能障碍疾病57。为了明确2型糖尿病患者嗅觉功能与认知功能之间的关系,SANKE等58对250名日本2型糖尿病老年患者进行了气味识别测试和认知功能测试,发现2种测试的得分显著相关,这表明2型糖尿病老年患者的嗅觉功能障碍与认知功能障碍有关。此外,ZHANG等6发现在糖尿病患者中,肥胖与情景记忆,以及空腹胰岛素与认知加工速度之间存在负相关,中介效应分析表明嗅觉功能和脑网络介导了糖尿病患者的肥胖、胰岛素释放与认知功能之间的相关性,同时胰高血糖素样肽1受体激动剂可以改善肥胖的糖尿病患者的认知和嗅觉异常。一项在糖尿病前期和糖尿病人群中的前瞻性研究59显示,嗅觉功能障碍和特定记忆损害之间存在强关联,这表明嗅觉识别受损可能作为记忆衰退的特定预测因子,在疾病预测中发挥重要作用。一项前瞻性队列研究60发现,在基线时存在嗅觉障碍的2型糖尿病老年患者更容易患上痴呆症,提示在2型糖尿病老年患者中,嗅觉功能障碍的出现可能先于痴呆症状。嗅觉异常被认为是帕金森病和阿尔茨海默病的一种常见的前驱症状,并且可以作为疾病早期诊断的一种生物学标志物4-5。在阿尔茨海默病的小鼠模型中观察到海马区毛细血管和脑神经管线粒体形态的改变并伴随着突触数量的减少,这些现象也发生在了非阿尔茨海默病的高脂饮食诱导的肥胖小鼠中,表明高脂饮食对记忆的不利影响可能是由于线粒体形态变化导致的突触数量减少61。嗅觉测试具有低成本和易操作等特点,因此可作为一种代谢性疾病认知障碍的预测手段应用于临床,在代谢性疾病出现认知障碍症状之前减缓或阻止疾病的进展。

6 结语

既往研究表明,肥胖、糖尿病等代谢性疾病与嗅觉功能的改变有关。嗅觉与代谢有直接的联系,其中嗅觉参与调节能量消耗与脂肪代谢,此外代谢状态也会影响和改变嗅觉,导致摄食选择等行为变化。然而,处理气味,尤其是与食物相关的气味涉及的大脑结构广泛,仍需更多的研究来探索其中的原因与机制。代谢的改善会带来嗅觉功能的改善,已有研究表明肥胖的治疗会逆转其带来的嗅觉障碍,然而尚缺乏长期的纵向队列研究来评估肥胖和糖尿病人群的嗅觉与代谢相关参数。

嗅觉缺陷可以作为早期生物标志物来检测伴随代谢性疾病而来的认知问题。此外,嗅觉监测也可用于评估减重手术等肥胖治疗后代谢指标与体质量的改善情况。总之,嗅觉功能有希望成为临床上检查代谢性疾病的能量代谢与相关并发症的生物标志物,从而为这些疾病的进展预测与预后评估提供新的手段。

作者贡献声明

吴倩负责论文的写作和修改;李华婷负责写作指导和论文审阅。两位作者均阅读并同意最终稿件的提交。

AUTHOR's CONTRIBUTIONS

WU Qian was responsible for writing and revision of the paper; LI Huating was responsible for writing guidance and paper review. Both authors have read and agreed to the submission of the final manuscript.

利益冲突声明

两位作者声明不存在利益冲突。

COMPETING INTERESTS

Both authors disclose no relevant conflict of interests.

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